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This constant high rate of ROS production leads rapidly to extreme macromolecular oxidation, here it is observed in the AOPP and MDA detected after 3 h in samples treated with bare P25TiO2NPs (Fig. 6Fig. 7). Macromolecular oxidation includes, among others, both protein and lipid oxidation. The ROS causes protein oxidation by direct reaction or indirect reactions with secondary by-products of oxidative stress. Protein fragmentation or cross-linkages could be produced after the oxidation of amino acid side chains and protein backbones. These and later dityrosine-containing protein products formed during excessive production of oxidants are known as advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP). They absorb at 340 nm and are used to estimate the damage to structural cell amino acids. Lipid oxidation is detected by the conjugation of oxidized polyunsaturated lipids with thiobarbituric acid, forming a molecule that absorbs light at 532 nm. Polyunsaturated lipids are oxidized as a result of a free-radical-mediated chain of reactions. The most exposed targets are usually membrane lipids. The macromolecular damage could represent a deadly danger if it is too extensive, and this might be the case. Moreover, it could be observed that cellular damage continues further and becomes irrevocable after 6 h and MDA could not be detected. This may be due to the fact that the lipids were completely degraded and cells were no longer viable. Lipids from the cell membrane are the most prone to oxidation. In fact, lipid peroxidation biomarkers are used to screen the oxidative body balance [51]. At the same time, AOPP values are up to 30 times higher for bare nanoparticles in comparison to the functionalized ones.

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Tronox Limited is another major player in the rutile market, with operations in Australia, South Africa, and the United States. The company's rutile production is used for the manufacture of titanium metal, which is in high demand for its strength, lightness, and corrosion resistance. Tronox Limited is also a leading producer of titanium dioxide pigments, which are used in the production of paints, coatings, and plastics
rutile
rutile market manufacturers.

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In conclusion, titanium dioxide plays a crucial role in the rubber industry by improving the quality, performance, and appearance of rubber products. Its unique combination of properties makes it a valuable additive in rubber formulations, offering benefits such as enhanced durability, UV resistance, and processing efficiency. With its versatility and effectiveness, titanium dioxide continues to be a preferred choice for rubber manufacturers looking to create high-quality and environmentally friendly rubber products.


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