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Different dermal cell types have been reported to differ in their sensitivity to nano-sized TiO2 . Kiss et al. exposed human keratinocytes (HaCaT), human dermal fibroblast cells, sebaceous gland cells (SZ95) and primary human melanocytes to 9 nm-sized TiO2 particles at concentrations from 0.15 to 15 μg/cm2 for up to 4 days. The particles were detected in the cytoplasm and perinuclear region in fibroblasts and melanocytes, but not in kerati-nocytes or sebaceous cells. The uptake was associated with an increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration. A dose- and time-dependent decrease in cell proliferation was evident in all cell types, whereas in fibroblasts an increase in cell death via apoptosis has also been observed. Anatase TiO2 in 20–100 nm-sized form has been shown to be cytotoxic in mouse L929 fibroblasts. The decrease in cell viability was associated with an increase in the production of ROS and the depletion of glutathione. The particles were internalized and detected within lysosomes. In human keratinocytes exposed for 24 h to non-illuminated, 7 nm-sized anatase TiO2, a cluster analysis of the gene expression revealed that genes involved in the “inflammatory response” and “cell adhesion”, but not those involved in “oxidative stress” and “apoptosis”, were up-regulated. The results suggest that non-illuminated TiO2 particles have no significant impact on ROS-associated oxidative damage, but affect the cell-matrix adhesion in keratinocytes in extracellular matrix remodelling. In human keratinocytes, Kocbek et al. investigated the adverse effects of 25 nm-sized anatase TiO2 (5 and 10 μg/ml) after 3 months of exposure and found no changes in the cell growth and morphology, mitochondrial function and cell cycle distribution. The only change was a larger number of nanotubular intracellular connections in TiO2-exposed cells compared to non-exposed cells. Although the authors proposed that this change may indicate a cellular transformation, the significance of this finding is not clear. On the other hand, Dunford et al. studied the genotoxicity of UV-irradiated TiO2 extracted from sunscreen lotions, and reported severe damage to plasmid and nuclear DNA in human fibroblasts. Manitol (antioxidant) prevented DNA damage, implying that the genotoxicity was mediated by ROS.

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In conclusion, the classification of calcium carbonate factories is a reflection of the diverse applications and requirements of this compound. Each type, whether natural or synthetic, large or small-scale, or specialized in a specific product, contributes significantly to various industries, demonstrating the versatility and importance of calcium carbonate in our daily lives. As technology advances and sustainability becomes more crucial, it is expected that these classifications will continue to evolve, adapting to the changing needs of the market and environment.

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In conclusion, titanium dioxide stands as a testament to the marvels of chemistry and engineering. As we continue to explore its potential, it remains an essential part of the wholesale pigment industry, contributing to products that touch every aspect of our lives. From enhancing the vibrancy of colors to combating pollution and advancing renewable energy technologies, titanium dioxide is indeed a remarkable substance with an ever-expanding palette of applications.

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  • In the paint industry, titanium dioxide is used as a pigment to provide a brilliant white color and enhance the durability and weather resistance of coatings
  • One of the key trends in the wholesale TiO2 market is the shift towards sustainable and environmentally friendly production methods. Manufacturers are increasingly investing in research and development to develop eco-friendly production processes that reduce carbon emissions and minimize waste. This trend is driven by increasing regulatory pressure on industries to reduce their environmental impact and meet sustainability goals.