How is titanium dioxide extracted?

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The overseas demand for Chinese TiO2 rose up by about 17% in 2016, which enabled an export increase of the manufacturers in China. As a fact, Chinese TiO2 is highly demanded in overseas markets, due to the comparable small price of the suppliers. The export of TiO2 is responsible for about one-third of the total output in China.

Animal studies have shown that, when consumed as a food additive, titanium dioxide can induce intestinal inflammation.

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A significant body of research, mostly from rodent models and in vitro studies, has linked titanium dioxide with health risks related to the gut, including intestinal inflammation, alterations to the gut microbiota, and more. It is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in Group 2B, as possibly carcinogenic to humans.

In a 2020 study published in the Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, researchers conducted an in vitro experiment to analyze the effects of TiO2 nanoparticles on a human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cell line. The scientists evaluated “reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, apoptosis, cellular antioxidant response, endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy.” The results showed that exposure to the nanoparticles “induced ROS generation in a dose dependent manner, with values reaching up to 10 fold those of controls. Nrf2 nuclear localization and autophagy also increased in a dose dependent manner. Apoptosis increased by 4- to 10-fold compared to the control group, depending on the dose employed.” 

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is considered as an inert and safe material and has been used in many applications for decades. However, with the development of nanotechnologies TiO₂ nanoparticles, with numerous novel and useful properties, are increasingly manufactured and used. Therefore increased human and environmental exposure can be expected, which has put TiO₂ nanoparticles under toxicological scrutiny. Mechanistic toxicological studies show that TiO₂ nanoparticles predominantly cause adverse effects via induction of oxidative stress resulting in cell damage, genotoxicity, inflammation, immune response etc. The extent and type of damage strongly depends on physical and chemical characteristics of TiO₂ nanoparticles, which govern their bioavailability and reactivity. Based on the experimental evidence from animal inhalation studies TiO₂ nanoparticles are classified as “possible carcinogenic to humans” by the International Agency for Research on Cancer and as occupational carcinogen by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The studies on dermal exposure to TiO₂ nanoparticles, which is in humans substantial through the use of sunscreens, generally indicate negligible transdermal penetration; however data are needed on long-term exposure and potential adverse effects of photo-oxidation products. Although TiO₂ is permitted as an additive (E171) in food and pharmaceutical products we do not have reliable data on its absorption, distribution, excretion and toxicity on oral exposure. TiO₂ may also enter environment, and while it exerts low acute toxicity to aquatic organisms, upon long-term exposure it induces a range of sub-lethal effects.

To avoid exposure to titanium dioxide, follow these recommendations:

In 2017, the Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) warned that they should revise their recommendations if any new evidence emerges in the future related to the potentially harmful effects of TiO₂NPs used in a sunscreen formulation or if they can penetrate the skin. In fact, our work could contribute to this matter because it evaluated the skin penetration of a particular kind of TiO₂NPs. [8]

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