A review published in 2022 in the journal NanoImpact evaluated the latest research related to genotoxic effects of titanium dioxide through in vivo studies and in vitro cell tests. Researchers summarized the results by stating TiO2 nanoparticles “could induce genotoxicity prior to cytotoxicity,” and “are likely to be genotoxic to humans.”

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Over the last several years, nanoparticles have come under scrutiny for adverse health effects. Nanoparticles are ultrafine particles between 1 to 100 nanometers in diameter. (To put this in perspective, the average human hair is around 80,000 nanometers thick.) Because of their size, which can be engineered and manipulated at the atomic or molecular level, nanoparticles exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties. Titanium dioxide is one of the most commonly produced nanoparticles in the world.

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Lithopone